London South Collegiate Institute - Oracle Yearbook (London, Ontario Canada)

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Beryllium EBYLLIUMI that previous little known metal has finally yielded many of its secrets to science after seventeen years of intensive research. lt has exerienced a life history much like that of aluminum. Valued at S3225 a pound in l930, the cost of beryllium has slowly dropped to S340 a pound in l936, on account of the many improvements in mining and processing this metal. Beryl, from which beryllium is produced, is found chiefy in granite called pegmatite. The supply of beryl comes mostly from British India, although Brazil, Argentina and South Africa also seem to be important. Beryllium is extracted in an electric furnace which must be kept constantly at l,400 degrees centrigrade. Recently, in the United States, a forward step that has been made in the achievement of cheaper beryllium alloys is the production of beryllium-copper directly by electrolysis without the pure metal stage. The characteristics of beryllium are surprising. lt is a brittle, steel-gray metal possessing great strength and lightness. The pure metal is almost as hard as quartz and cuts glass easily. lt is lighter than magnesium and about one-third the weight of aluminum. However, its most amazingz properties occur in its compounds. An alloy of 30? copper and 702, beryllium is stronger than carbon steel. One to two and one- half per cent of beryllium in copper alloys greatly increases their hardness, toughness and resist- ance against fatigue. Bolling and drawing these alloys at certain temperatures improves their qual- ities to a very high degree. A beryllium-copper wire, hard drawn, withstood a pull of l08,000 pounds per square inch, but heat-treatment increased its strength to withstand l90,000 pounds per square inch. The hardness of beryllium alloys is proportional to the beryllium content and, strangely enough, is increased by cold-working as well as heat-treatment. These alloys are as resistant to corrosion as Wrought copper-tin alloys and more resistant than the best tin-bronze and phosphor-bronze used for coil-springs, etc., where fatigue strains are high. lndeed, a high grade phosphor-bronze spring failed after 600,000 flexes, but after ll,000,000 flexes a beryllium-copper spring showed no signs of failure! Beryllium is seventeen times as transparent to X-rays as aluminium and is used for Windows in X-ray tubes. This is about the only use for the pure metal but uses for its alloys have increased greatly. The tremendous resistance against fatigue of beryllium-copper alloys makes its production for heavy duty springs very extensive. Besides being used for a large number of mechanical appliances, another of their great uses is the 32 manufacture of non-sparking tools. The copper- beryllium alloy used for these implements is as strong as steel but will not spark. This fact makes them very useful around powder factories, paint shops, petroleum wells, and other places where there are serious fire hazards. There are other huge possibilities for beryllium in the future. Since the conductivity of this metal is much greater than other high-strength metals, it forms a possible high-strength conductor. Since beryllium cannot be brazed or welded, it might be used for pins and sockets for electrical appli- ances. The abrasion resistance of this metal would reduce service charges and fire and shock hazards. Even more speculative is the possibility that beryllium may be alloyed with aluminum. This alloy would provide a very light but very, very strong metal whose extensive uses are quite apparent. Beryllium itself may some time yield to a process that will render it usable in the pure state. Indeed that strange metal may some day become one of the greatest achievements of science. -Leonard W. Wray, V A. Stainless Steel AN began his conquest of rust when the first iron tools were invented. However, the most important developments have occurred in the twentieth century. Today we have stainless steel, that wonder alloy which promises to work amaz- ing changes in every one of the many industrial uses of steel. ln l9l2 Elwood Daynes of Indiana came near to a very great discovery when he melted iron with nickel cobalt and chromium in an effort to make non-corroding spark-plug points. Though various experiments with different com- binations were tried, it was during the next decade that Harry Brearly, head of a research laboratory in Sheffield, England, found the most important property of these combinations-the resistance to corrosion. He was attempting to discover the best metal for the bores of big guns. lt was neces- sary to find one which would not melt or corrode, but at first he was unsuccessful with his mixtures of iron and chromium. But in l9l6 Brearly received patents on the first application of stainless steel to cutlery. ln Germany nickel was added to iron and chromium and this produced a much im- proved alloy. However, it is very difficult to pro- duce this type of steel, for if a single trace of iron sticks to it, it is no longer rust-proof. There are several stainless alloys. Steel used in the auto- mobile, besides iron, consists of 162 to l8'Za chromium: steel used in the textile industry con- sists of iron, molybdenum and selenium. There are thousands of uses for this high-priced metal. However, experts tell us that only the beginning has been made in comparison with what the future holds. Certainly rust will be less of a menace. -ferry Stoner, IV C.

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Nature and Science By Gertrude Bergey, IVC and Leonard Wray, VA The Protection of Hawks and Owls T the mention of hawks or owls, most people glance furtively around and cross their fingers. These birds are commonly considered cruel, merciless bullies who swoop silently down cn defenceless victims. This is a travesty of jus- tice, for just as Worms form the food of robins, so small animals form the chief food of hawks and owls. In the last few years there has been a general slaughter of hawks and owls with dire results. Last year the irreparable damage done to trees in the form of girdling mounted into thousands of dollars. This was traced to the unnatural surviv- ing increase of the rodent population due to the attempted extermination of hawks and owls, who eat these mammals. It is only in a time of famine or of direct neces- sity that a hawk will steal a chicken or kill some small bird. Contrary to common gossip, there is no such bird as a chicken hawk that feeds on chickens exclusively. Hawks should not be destroyed because somebody found the remains of his chicken mysteriously behind the barn. The creation of hawks and owls is nature's method of keeping down the rodent population. Naturalists have calculated that a pair of meadow mice may have as many as seventy-seven off- spring in a year. Hence, the next time you notice a tree that has been killed by girdling, spread the password, Protect the Hawks and Owls. -Gertrude Bergey, IV C. The Priceless Orchid HEN the Queen of Sheba planned her visit to Solomon it occurred to her that, as a gift to a king, neither gold nor spices were original. Dozens of curious and elaborate suggestions were made, but none of them seemed to strike her fancy. Finally, one of her handmaidens timidly sug- gested orchids. , The queen brought orchids with her. She cut down all the trees on which they grew, and carried them with her, so that her caravan resembled nothing so much as an advancing forest. King Solomon smelled their faint, yet unforgettable perfume, and admired their colours, so delicate and yet so full of character: he was ensnared by the slim throats and petals of subtle sensuous flowers. Their lure has outlived time. The precious stones of Solomon's time, beryl, chalcedonny and jasper have buried their magic in the tombs of forgotten kings, but the loveliness of orchids still lives. Fortunes are spent on them: one orchid may cost from five to five thousand dollars, depending on its rarity. Whole lives are spent collecting and hunting them. The harrowing experiences of the orchid hunters who go to the pest-infested jungles of South America, Sumatra, Borneo or Madagascar for rare varieties make big- game hunting and Arctic exploring seem unevent- ful and tepid pastimes. But the songless sirens who repay with only aloof, chiselled beauty, demand life, death and constant fidelity from their enchanted vassals. -Gilbert Morrison. Fungi FTEN we hear of bird-hikes, wild-flower hunts and insect collections, but seldom do we hear even an enthusiastic phrase about fungi. These lowly little plants are to be found every- where, growing where other life could not exist. There are two forms of fungi, one of which is very injurious, and is known to the world as parasitic. lt destroys our grain and blemishes our fruit and only partially repays the damage by the destruc- tion of insect pests. The other form, however, saprophytic, is most interesting if intensely studied. There is no other form of plant life just like it. None of its parts are green, nor does it breathe by lungs, but by gills, or pores. Food cannot be changed into starch or sugar by the fungi, but must be taken in a prepared state from a decaying plant or animal. They are reproduced by small dust-like spores, instead of by seeds. Thus, in the three essentials, breathing, food and reproduction, fungi are in a class by themselves. There are two classes of saprophytic fungi, namely: gill and pore. Each grows from mycelium -a cluster of white fibres which absorb food for the plant: but one variety breathes by gills, the other by pores. Some grow on the bark of trees in the form of brackets, some as puffballs, toadstoods, mushrooms, shaggy mains, and many others. All are so different and yet so alike. One of the leading authorities on fungus- growth in North America lives in our own city, even in our own part of the city. Perhaps you have guessed to whom I refer. He has found in the study of these unobtrustive little plants a very real source of interest and fascination. The name of this distinguished authority is Dr. Deafness. All over North America his name is known and respected. -Iune Deacon, IV C. tContinued on page 607 31

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Alcohol HERE are many different types of alcohol, but most of us are familiar with only two of them, Methyl alcohol Cor wood-alcoholi and Ethyl Cgrain alcoholi. Wood-alcohol, so called because it is made from wood in the manufacture of charcoal, is used for a great variety of things such as anti-freeze for automobiles, as solvents, preservatives, and as fuel. Grain alcohol is the active principle in all liquors and beers: it is used in liniments, tonics and hand-lotions. Pure grain alcohol with brucine added to it is sold as rubbing alcohol: the brucine makes it unfit for internal use. Wood-alcohol is made from the liquor obtained in the distillation of wood for charcoal. From this liquor, acetic acid is also obtained, which is used in making vinegar. Grain alcohol is formed by the fermentation of sugars and starches and is purified also by distillation. Nearly all of the rarer alcohols and ethers are made froin the two common types. Grain alcohol, unlike wood-alcohol, possesses characteristics similar to gasoline, and can be used as a motor fuel. Its price, however, is pro- hibitive and unless some process can be found to lower production costs it will be a long time before it supplants gasoline as a motor fuel. There is no known method as yet which will answer, so the gasoline dealers need not feel worried. It has been recently shown that surplus citrus fruits can be made into wines, but they are not cheap enough to be used for commercial alcohol. -George Barrett, VA. Radio and War URING the Great War, radio was still in its infancy. Short waves had only been used experimentally, and very little was known about their behaviour in space. Since then radio has been eating grape-nuts, or what have you, and in the next war will begboth a powerful ally and a terrible enemy. One of the most important uses of ultra-short waves in the next war will be locating enemy planes and ships. These waves travel in straight lines like light, but unlike light they pierce both fog and smoke. When they are intercepted by a plane, they are reflected to earth. Here they are picked up by recording instruments which im- mediately send out an alarm: sometimes they automatically train anti-aircraft guns on invaders. A city will easily be protected from unheralded enemy aircraft by a barrage of such micro-waves surrounding it. Similarly ships can be detected and accurately located, although they may be fifteen miles out at sea. For purposes of communication each battalian would have its own short-wave set, which would make it possible to keep in touch with head- quarters at all times. Of course the enemy would receive the signals too, but to keep the message secret a special code could be used, or the radio typewriter, or scrambled speech Cspeech in which the sounds have been garbled, and to anyone without the deciphering equipment would sound like unintelligible gibberishl. Perhaps the simplest means of communication would be the directional or radio beam, which can be focused like a searchlight. To me, the most interesting use of short waves is that of remote control. Practically any war machine can be controlled remotely by radio. As the British experts have shown, an air attack could take place with not a single human being in the planes----all controlled by means of a clever electro-mechanical device which will operate only on receiving by radio a pre- arranged signal. A series of mines, planted previously under a bridge, or in any desired loca- tion, could be exploded when the enemy charges over the ground, sending men and guns sky-high. There are, of course, hundreds of uses of radio for war purposes which are kept a profound secret by the countries possessing them. Only the next war will show us what radio has in store for us. fBruce lackson, V A. Hir Conditioning OST of us, l think, are familiar with the meaning of air conditioning, but for those who are not, the defintion given by the Heating and Ventilating Engineers Guide follows in part: The term air-conditioning includes the simul- taneous control of temperature, humidity, move- ment of the air. The term is broad enough to embrace whatever other additional factors may be found desirable for maintaining the atmosphere of occupied spaces at a condition best suited to the physiological requirement of the human body. Automatic maintenance of temperature is not only a comfort, but also a saving in fuel and labour. Control of humidity has several advan- tages. When winter air is heated, it becomes relatively dry, and its capacity for moisture increases. Therefore it tends to rob the throat and nasal passages of their protective mucous coating. making us more susceptible to the ailments of the respiratory tract, Moist atmosphere preserves fur- niture, paintings, musical instruments and plants, as well as our health. Also, in the cold season, air containing the correct amount of moisture can be lived in comfortably at lower temperature than can drier air. In summer the effects of excess humidity are well known, so elimination of the tContinued on page 673 33