Camden High School - Purple and Gold Yearbook (Camden, NJ)

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an-m6dE Gold TIIIiORIi'l'lCAI.I.Y I':Xl'I..XINlilI in Tn 1-3 Aromlc 'l'u1co1z1 ics LOUIS COLA FRANCESCU, 1957 TUSIIC structure has always perplexed the mentality of man. Although it is a very interesting subject to study, I must admit that it is one of the most com- plicated topics in the science of physics. In this article, I desire to explain in a simple and comprehen- sive manner the theories and struc- tures of atoms. All matter is composed of molecules. Sugar, for example, is a substance which is composed of molecules. If I separated a crystal of sugar until I have one molecule, I could not do anything else, chemically speaking, CES 17ig.I l'1g.ll CARBON with this molecule without altering its composition. Sugar has the for- mula of C12 HQ, UH. If I remove iust one of the atoms from this molecule, the residue would not be sugar. With this information in mind, I come to one conclusion and that isl l may di- vide substances into molecules, but I cannot divide the molecule and still have the same substance with which I started. The foregoing statements do not mean that molecules are indi- visible, for as you know, molecules are composed of atoms. Perhaps you have considered an atom is an element or particle which is indivisible. I intend to prove that Page Twelve atomic disintegration and transmuta- tion are both theoretically and prac- tically possible. Before presenting the structure of atoms, it is absolutely necessary to know its constituents. Atoms are composed of two fundamental entities which are the proton and the electron. To draw an intelligent and correct diagram of an atom, the periodic table must be consulted. The periodic table was formerly a chart in which the atoms were ar- ranged primarily in accordance with their atomic weight. At present, the atoms are arranged accordingly to their X-ray spectra. fxlosely, a bril- liant scientist, conceived the idea of exposing the X-rays on the elements, thus a reflecting spectra was produced. By photographing the spectra, it is possible to calculate the frequency ot the rays that are the characteristics of any element. .xlosely also made the important discovery that the wave length of the lines decreased regularly as he replaced each element by the next one of the higher atomic weight. The proton is generally considered the mass of the atom, and the electron the energy, but I also want it under- 3 if 3 an 7- ue- rig. nl KRi'ToN stood that the proton has subatomic energy in its potential form. The layman is always curious to know the mass of the electron and proton. I do not want to bore you with tigures, but you should have some knowledge of the relative weight and size of these extremely small particles of matter. The diameter ofa proton is 10 -13 or 0.000000000000l centime- ters. At the present time the diameter of the electron is considered about the same. The proton is approximately 18-10 times the mass of the electron. In Figure I, you will see the atomic structure ofthe atom carbon as it ap- peared to a scientist in 1920. You will notice that the atom of carbon has a nucleus, consisting of six protons 167 B Fig. IV BROMINE and is encircled by two orbits, con- taining two and tour electrons, respec- tively. At present, I am going to state two reasons why Figure I is an incor- rect diagram of the atom carbon. Reamon I. As I have stated before, the proton has a relative mass of IS-10 as compared with the electron. Ac- cording to the 1920 picture, the elec- tron weighs just as much as the pro- ton. The mass of the carbon atom is 12 not 6, because the atomic weight

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Zin The Qauaint Uliutnn QBf fbxfurh, Cfnglanh T IIAb long been one ofmy secret ambxtlons to XISlt the famous town of Uxford Izngland Imac. me mv dehght 'md surprlse when I heard Wlr Iord cftsually mention that he had been ln th1s town of my dreams durmg the summer Resolymg to add to my knowledge of Oxford I eagerly lIl1CStl0I16LI hlm about h1s y 1s1t there Ilere IS hls storv about Oxford whxch may mterest vou as xt dld me Oxford IS sxtuated at the Junctlon of the 'Ihames Rlyer flftv m1les northyvest of London It IS called the Cathedral Cxty because of 1ts notable churches The unlyersltv buxldlngs howeyer are of the greatest mterest as lt IS the oldest un1vers1tv of Fng land A few of the best knoyyn col leges are Umyerslty Balhol Izxeter fVIagdalen Corpus ChFlSt1 Chrxst Church Trlmty and Oueens Col lege whlch IS one of the oldest datmg back to the e1ghteenth centurv I was flrst lmpressed xn Oxford bv the 'ur of quletness found nowhere else the a1r of cleanlmess and the absence of commerclal slgns Uxford IS composed almost entxrely of col leges wlth a few homes nestlmg among them Poth homes und col leges haye beautlful well kept gir dens before them for the I' nglxsh hay e a great respect for beautv Thelr buxldmgs are also constructed yerv durably for mstance a good lllustra tlon of thls IS St 'Warv s Unlyersal Church whlch has held sery 1ces for nme hundred and twenty fnye vears I was also xmpressed bv the lack of hurry the most popular mode of trans portatxon was the blcycle Wlothers wlth babxes small chlldren busmess men and students are all seen ped CII1ng thelr way to thelr yarxous dest1nat1ons The people are exceed mgly frlendlv and yyarmlv welcome all yxsxtors The home customs are qu1te thf ferent from ours Wen and women are hardlv ey er together as there has alwavs been a d1y1s1on between the sexes Boys and gurls are xlw avs sent to dlfferent schools I seldom sayy a XIPI IRXI' af man and w oman out w alkmg together Xt soexal gathermgs the w omen alway s remam m groups 1p nrt from the men nor do they haye the freedom of Amerlcan women All professors and students wear long robes black trousers and large brlmmed h'1ts IIhe teachers are called Dons IIhe Dons and the stu dents seem to be IU the college for one ultlmate reason to xncrease their culture At n1ne oclock the curfew rmgs one hundred strokes from the bell 1n the cupola of the town hall All stu dents must be at that t1me on the college grounds or pav a heayy fme At thls txme a group of men called Proctors X1S1t the yarxous shops and streets of the town seekmg students who haye remalned out after curfew Cne amuslng mcldent took place when seyeral voung men yvho had staved ID town after the curfew had rung were seen by a group of proctors who chased them to arrest them The students managed to reach the grounds of Uueen s College and went up onto the porch whxeh IS regarded bv an unw rltten law as neutral terr1 torv Ilhe proctors belreymg them f' 7 to be residents of another college, waited below' hoping to catch them at eleven when thev would have to return to thelr dormltorles for at eley en the gates and doors were locked for the mght Xt eleyen o clock the students gallv entered Jueen s College of whxch they were fortunately residents whlle the walt mg proctors moodlly returned home the joke bemg on them In hnglxsh colleges students fol low thelr own mcllnatlons YI hen a student has obtaxned all the desnred mformatlon and knowledge he goes before an examlnxng board that deter mmes whether he lb worthv of hls degree he does not attend classes as we do but has a tutor Engllsh stu dents haye a deeper respect for edu cat1on The Amerlcan has a desxre to get somethmg out of xt or to be practlcal b seekmg knowledge to benef1t hlm 1n monev matters and future dealmgs 1n l1fe Engllsh stu dents learn for culture s sake alone In Enghsh colleges one goes as far as one wlshes It depends entlrely upon the mdxyxdual as there are no set courses as ln our colleges It would be y erv dlfhcult for one to dec1de whether he would w xsh to attend an Engllsh college or an Amerlean one Each one stands for somethmg dlfferent the I'ngl1sh colleges culture the Amerx can ones means of llyellhood fx! f ff ffff ff ff f f f Xfeax Y Xvax 'egefa-M95 1 f . ftlbrnstmas QEhe 1' X tx Iloonlfeam r zlanczng llzrouglz llze broken pane lf lzzf do you .flmw me llzzf dzrllf urclzm Jleepzllyjfljzlllzf f If lzzle a lzllle .rlockznq lzanqv emplzf on llze ua f Slum me rallzer 1 warm co If roam and In anqelzc clzzlzl rleepzng peacefully If lule a lmlgnzq 110041119 lzangn and mer ou f at zllzjayl f JACOB Goxcnmorr 19.96 Q Qy 'Za 425 62, 9, +25 v 2, 9 fvfxa Page Eleven V 1 1 V -v I I . 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1 F Elg XI HELIL N1 determ1nes the number of protons 1n the nucleus Rtarmz II X1 hen rad1oact1xe sub stances chsmtegrate three rays are em1tted Thev are the alpha rays beta ravs and gamma rays The alpha rays haxe xerv l1ttle penetrat 1ng power and are found to be pos1 tn elv charged part1cles atoms f hellum Thrs proxes that the atom has a nucleus composed of protons The 1920 p1cture rexeals th1s The beta ravs are fast moung negatne part1cles em1tted by the nucleus of the atom and called electrons You must remember that these electrons come from the nucleus of the atom and not the orb1t Fxerv nucleus con ta1ns them except the hydrogen atom serxe F1gure 1 vou w1l1 see no elec trons 1n the nucleus thus proung another defect 1n the 1920 atom 1n F1gure II the been modern1zed as 1t IS 1nterest1ng and how th1s model was am1ne the per1od1c xery carefullv and atom carbon has much as posslble essent1al to know constructed Ex chart QHubbard1 record ltS atom1c XVC1g1'1t 12 atom1c number 6 group IX and ltS per1od II These facts are 1nd1spensable for w1thout them 1 could not draw the d1agram of the atom The atom1c weleht usually de term1nes the amount of protons 1n the nucleus The atom1c number repre sents the number of planetary elec trons The group 1n whxch the atom IS usuallv determ1nes the number of the electrons 1n the last orb1t the per1od denotes the number of orb1ts the atom has 1f1 subtract the atomlc number from the atomxc we1ght the LTIHCFCHCE IS the number of electrons 1n the nucleus X1 hen 1 stud1edchem1strv 1 learned that some elements were xers stablc and actnc elements respectnely In 1'1gure III IS a d1agram of the krypton atom The nucleus of th1s atom con ta1ns 85 protons and 47 electrons also four orb1ts w1th 2 8 18 and 8 plane tarv electrons respectnelv A careful obserxat1on of th1s atom rex eals a per fectlx balanced Ofblt wh1ch has 36 electrons Smce the sum of the first second and fourth orblts equal the th1rd Ofblt the orb1ts do not need a s1ngle electron therefore It IS sa1d to be 1n a state of perfect equ111br1um On the other hand make a close exam1nat1on of F1gure IX the bro m1ne atom and you w111 find that ltS orb1ts are not balanced for It lacks one electron 11 1th an add1t1onal elec tron the orb1ts would equ1l1brate V1athemat1cal facts or ca1culat1ons show that there are two poss1ble shapes of the orb1ts 1n an atom c1rcu lar and el11pt1cal F1gure NI IS a d1a gram of the helxum atom accordmg to the most recent theor1es The black dots 1n the nucleus are the protons The nucleus does not conta1n any free electrons The symbol O represents a comb1nat1on of one proton and one electron YY1'1lCl'l the sc1ent1sts named neutron because 1tS charge IS equal to zero Neutrons are created when GD H1 DROGEN Fng XII F1g VIII F X the atom1c nucleus IS bombarded by fast mox 1ng part1cles or when cosm1c rays fall on matter Some SCleHt1StS say the neutrons 6XlSt only momen tar11y and exentually d1sappear 1nto ord1narv electrons Although these facts are not start l1ng they 1nsp1re quest1ons that haxe led to some surpr1s1ng conclus1ons It IS now possxble to theoret1ca1lv trans form the element mercury 1nto gold Rutherford an Enghsh phys1c1st has pract1callv altered heawv atoms 1nto l1ghter ones 1n the nucleus of the mercurv atom there IS an access of 80 protons wh1ch represent the atom1c numbe1 of the atom Ifa fast mowmg electron could penetrate the nucleus of th1s atom and lodge 1tself safelv Ylflthln lt the result would be a neu tral1zat1on and the neutrallzatxon of the electron and proton would doubt lessly mean the complete ann1h1lat1on ofa nuclear proton w1th the 11berat1on of a certa1n amount of energy The result would also be another atom w1th the atom1c number of 79 wh1ch IS go cl There IS also another method of transform1ng mercury lHt0 gold IfI could cause an 1sotope of mercurv wh1ch has an atom1c we1ght of 1985 to em1t a proton the result1ng product would be an atom w1th atomlc welght of 197 Wh1Ch IS gold If nature hadn t created heaxy and complxcated atoms as rad1um and uranxum wh1ch d1s1ntegrate contlnu ously the present day sc1ent1st would hate had onlv a very vague Concep t1on of matter Probably many ofyou readers haxe heard of the word 1sotope In sp1te of the fact that lSOtOpeS haxe dxfferent atomlc WelghtS from the1r parent atoms they st1ll retaxn the1r charac ter1st1c propert1es At present there are three lsotopes of hydrogen These are ord1nary hy drogen w1th a mass of one the so called heavy hydrogen named deu terlum sc1ent1f1ca1ly w1th an atom1c Welght of two and st11l another of three The three F1gures VII VIII and IX show a theoret1ca1 d1a gram of the hydrogen fam11y arranged accord1ng to the1r atom1c we1ghts Perhaps you are cur1ous to know why the hydrogen atom un1tes Wlth another hydrogen atom when there IS apparently no e1ectrostat1c force to conso11date the two atoms 1 am sorry to say but 1 must contrad1ct my former statement and prove to you by another hypothet1ca1d1agram that there IS an e1ectrostat1c attract1on ex 1st1ng 1n the two hydrogen atoms Examme F1gure X and you w1l1 see an 1ngen1ous d1agram sat1sfy1ng your cur1os1tv It IS self explanatory 1 haxe sa1d xerv l1ttle about the propert1es of matter Although 1 have heard that matter 1S xery porous t has nex er been demonstrated to me C1 mzfznued on page I Page Thirteen . V . V A 1 1 I J ' V ., I ' .V ' P ' ' ' ' - 1 . ' t ' A 1 1 . V V . . V V . . . , , V . , , - l o - I V I LY , - - L V 1 . ' , ' V V VV V . V .. V V v V VV V V VV - V A . . . V -V V - V 0- K V . . V . - . V . - - V . . . , . . - . V . V V . V V . . . - . . . . V - ' ' ' ff ll , V , . 4 ' V - V . 1 . 3 which has a mass of one. If you'1l ob- heavier hydrogen atom with a mass I Y Y v f L V - Q l f , . . . V , L. , . . . . V A . ' ' . ig.I ' . . i 1 . 1 Y ' p . , . V V U V . . V . NV V 1 . V V , V . . . V V , V , . . V . V . V V i V .u V V I V. Y .1 1 1 u I V V- , I 1 H- , 'v . - 1-Hg. x 112 ,. . . V I V VVV